The “Models of Exceptional Situations” and the study of the hunter-gatherers societies
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Published:
Apr 18, 2020
Keywords:
Hunter Gatherers, Archaeology
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Abstract
Archeologists and ethnographers have recently devoted considerable effort to the study of hunter-gatherer societies. When the results of these works were applied to archeology, a series of very useful discussions were generated, which focused mainly on: (1) inference methodology, (2) mutual limits between archeology and ethnography, and (3 ) relevance of the present to understand the past. I will present a discussion about them. These three themes are inextricably linked together, so I will not discuss them separately, but together. It can be said that there is a great general issue - the role of argument by analogy - that is present in each of the three themes mentioned above. So it can be said that all these discussions generated around hunters and gatherers, both living and extinct, essentially depend on the concept of argument by analogy.
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Borrero, L. . (2020). The “Models of Exceptional Situations” and the study of the hunter-gatherers societies. Comechingonia. Revista De Arqueología, 24(1), 93–110. https://doi.org/10.37603/2250.7728.v24.n1.28242
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References
Ascher, R. 1961 Analogy in archaeological interpretation. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 17: 317-325.
Bellwood, P. 1985 Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago. Academic Press, Sydney.
Bender, B. 1985 Prehistoric developments in the American Midcontinent and in Brittany, Northwest France. En Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers: The Emergence of Cultural Complexity, J. Price y J. Brown (eds.), pp. 21-57. Academic Press, Orlando.
Binford, L. 1967 Smudge pits and hide smoking: the use of analogy in archaeological reasoning. American Antiquity 32(1): 1-12. 1968 An Etnohistory of the Nottoway, Meherrin and Weacnock indians of Southwestern Virginia. Etnohistory 14(3-4) (whole number). 1977a General introduction. En For Theory Building in Archaeology, L. Binford (ed.), pp. 1-10. Academic Press, New York. 1977b Historical Archaeology, is it Historical or Archaeological? En Historical Archaeology and the Importance of Material Things, L. Ferguson (eds.), pp. 13-22. The Society for Historical Archaeology, New York.
1980 Willow smoke and dog's tails: hunter-gatherer settlement systems and archaeological site formation. American Antiquity 45: 4-20. 1981 Bones. Ancient Men and Modern Myths. Academic Press, New York. 1982 The archaeology of place. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1(1): 5-31. 1983 Long term land use patterns: some implications for archaeology. Lulu Linear Punctated: En Essays in Honor of George Irving Quimby, R. Dunnell y D. Grayson (eds.), pp. 27-53. Anthropological Papers 72, University of Ann Arbor.
Borrero, L. 1984 Transporte y trozamiento de guanacos: otra discusión sobre la analogía etnográfica. Trabajo presentado al Quinto Congreso de Historia Fueguina, Ushuaia. 1986 La Economía Prehistórica de los Habitantes del Norte de la Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego. Tesis de Doctorado. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires.
Borrero, L. y H. Yacobaccio 1989 Etnoarqueología de asentamientos Aché (cazadores- recolectores del Paraguay Oriental). Ms.
Bridges, E. 1951 Uttermost Part of the Earth. Hodder y Stoughton, London.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. 1986 African pygmies: an evaluation of the state of research. En African Pygmies, L. CavalliSforza (ed.), pp. 361-423. Academic Press, Orlando.
Chang, C. 1982 Nomads without cattle: East African foragers in historical perspective. En Politics and History of Band Societies, E. Leacocj y R. Lee (ed.), pp. 269- 282. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Clarke, D. 1976 Mesolithic Europe: the economic basis. En Problems in Social and Economic Archaeology, G. Sieverking, I. Longworth y K. Uilson (eds.). Duckworth, London.
Clastres, P. 1972 Chronique des Indiens Guayaki. Pión, Eureux.
Cole, F. C. 1945 The Peoples of Malaysia. Van Nostrand Co., New York.
Conkey, W. 1984 To find durselues: art and social geography of prehistoric hunter-gatherers. En Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 253-276. Academic Press, Orlando.
Dahlberg, F. (ed.) 1981 Woman the Gatherer. Yale University Press, New Haven.
DeNiro, M. 1987 Stable isotopy and archaeology. African Scientist 75: 182-191.
Eaton, R. 1978 The evolution of trophy hunting. Carnivore 1(1): 110-121.
Estioko-Griffin, A. y P. Griffin 1981 Woman the hunter: the Agta. En Woman the Gatherer, F. Oahlberg (ed.), pp. 121-151. Yale University Press, New Haven & London.
Fedigan, L. 1986 The changing role of women in models of human evolution. Annual Review of Anthropology 15: 25-66.
Foley, R. 1982 A reconsideration of the role of predation on large mammals in Tropical HunterGatherer adaptation. Man 17: 393-402.
Frison, G.; Todd, L. y B. Bradley 1987 Summary and concluding remarks. En The Horner Site. The Type Site of the Cody Cultural Complex, G. Frison y L. Todd (eds.), pp. 361-369. Academic Press, Orlando.
Gamble, C. 1986 The Paleolithic Settlement of Europe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gould, R. 1980 Living Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gould, R. y P. Watson 1982 A dialogue on the meaning and use of analogy in ethno-archaeological reasoning. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1: 355-381.
Griffin, P. 1984 Forager resource and land use in the tropics: the Agta of N.E. Luzon, The Philippines. En Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 95-121. Academic Press, Orlando.
Griffin, P. y A. Estioko-Griffin 1978 Ethnoarchaeology in the Philippines. Archaeology 31(6): 34-43.
Gusinde, M. 1982 Los Indios de Tierra del Fuego. I. Los Selknam. CONICET/CAEA, Buenos Aires.
Hardesty, D. 1986 Rethinking cultural adaptation. Professional Geographer 38(1): 11-18.
Hayden, B.; Deal, M.; Cannon, A. y J. Casey 1986 Ecological determinants of women's status among hunter/gatherers. Human Evolution 1(5): 449-474.
Hewlett, B.; Van de Koppel, J. y W. Van de Koppel 1986 Causes of death among Aka Pygmies of the Central African Republic. En African Pygmies, L. Cavalli- Sforza (ed.), pp. 45-63. Academic Press, Orlando.
Hill, K. 1983 Los Aché del Paraguay Oriental: condiciones actuales e historia reciente. Suplemento Antropológico XVIII(1): 149-177.
Hoffman, C. 1984 Punan foragers in the trading networks of Southeast Asia. En Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 123-149. Academic Press, Orlando. 1986 The Punan, Hunters and Gatherers of Borneo. UMI Research Press, Ann Arbor.
Jarvenpa, R. 1980 The trappers of Patuanak: toward a spatial ecology of modern hunters. En Canadian Ethnology Service, Paper 67, Ottawa.
Kroeber, A. 1979 The elusive mill creeks. En Ishi the Last Yahi. A Documentary History, R. Heizer y T. Kroeber (eds.), pp. 80-87. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Lathrap, D. 1968 The 'hunting' economies of the Tropical Forest Zone of South America: an attempt at historical perspective. En Man the Hunter, R. Lee e I. DeVore (eds.), pp. 23-29. Aldine, Chicago.
Leacock, E. y R. Lee 1982 Introduction. En Politics and History in Band Societies, E. Leacock y R. Lee (eds.), pp. 120. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lee, R. 1968 What hunters do for a living, or how to make out on scarce resources? En Man the Hunter, R. Lee e I. DeVore (eds.), pp. 30-38. Aldine, Chicago. 1979 The !Kung San. Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lee, R. e I. DeVore (eds.) 1968 Man the Hunter. Aldine, Chicago.
Leone, M. 1983 Symbolic, structural, and critical archaeology. En American Archaeology. Past and Future, D. Pleltzer, D. Fouler y J. Sabloff (eds.), pp. 415-438. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington & London.
Little, M. 1983 An overview of adaptation. En Rethinking Human Adaptation, R. Dyson-Hudson y M. Little (eds.), pp. 137-147. Westview Press, Boulder.
McCarthy, F. y M. W. Arthur 1960 The food quest and the time factor in aboriginal economic live. En Anthropology and Nutrition: Records of the American-Australian Scientific Expedition to Arnhem Land 1948, C. Mountford (ed.), vol. 2, pp. 145-194. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.
Moran, E. 1983 Mobility as a negative factor in human adaptability: the case of South American tropical forest populations. En Rethinking Human Adaptation: Biological and Cultural Models, R. Dyson-Hudson y M. Little (eds.), pp. 117-135. Westview Press, Boulder.
Morris, B. 1982a The family, group structuring and trade among South Indian hunters-gatherers. En Politics and History in Band Societies, E. Leacock y R. Lee (eds.), pp. 171-187. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
1982b Economy, affinity and inter-cultural pressure: notes around Hill Pandaram group structure. Man 17: 452-461.
O'Connell, J. 1979 Room to move: contemporary Alyawara settlement patterns and their implications for aboriginal housing policy. En A Black Reality: Aboriginal Camps and Housing in Remote Australia, H. Neppell (ed.), pp. 97-120. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra. 1987 Alyawara site structure and its archaeological implications. American Antiquity 52(1): 74108.
O'Connell, J. y K. Hawkes 1984 Food choice and foraging sites among the Alyawara. Journal of Anthropological Research 40(4): 504-535.
O'Connell; Hawkes, K. y N. Blurton-Jones 1987 Hadza scavenging: implications for Plio-Pleistocene hominid subsistence. Ms.
Parkington, J. 1984 Soaqua and Bushmen: hunters and robbers. En Past and Present in Hunter-gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 151-174. Academic Press, Orlando.
Peterson, W. 1981 Recent adaptive shifts among Palanan hunters of the Philippines. Man 16(1): 43-61.
Sabloff, J.; Binford, L. y P. McAnany 1987 Understanding the archaeological record. Antiquity 61: 203-209.
Schrire, C. 1972 Ethno-archaeological models and subsistence behavior in Arnhem Land. En Models in Archaeology, O. Clarke (ed.), pp. 653-670. Methuen, London. 1984a Wild surmises on savage thoughts. En Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 1-25. Academic Press, Orlando. 1984b Interactions of past and present in Arnhem Land, North Australia. En Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 67-93. Academic Press, Orlando.
Smith, E. 1983 Anthropological applications of Optimal Foraging Theory: a critical review. Current Anthropology 24(5): 625-551.
Speth, J. 1983 Bison Kills and Bone Counts. Decision Making by Ancient Hunters. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Thomson, D. 1939 The seasonal factor in human culture, illustrated from the life of a contemporary nomadic group. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 5: 209-221.
Turnbull, C. 1983 The Mbuti Pygmies. Change and Adaptation. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. 1986 Survival factors among Mbuti and other hunters of the Equatorial African Rainforest. En African Pygmies, L. Cavalli-Sforza (ed.), pp. 103-123. Academic Press, Orlando.
Vellard, J. 1934 Les indiens Guayaki. Journal de la Societé des Americanistes 26 : 223- 295.
White, C. (Schrire) 1967 The prehistory of the Kakadu people. Mankind 6(9): 426-431.
White C. (Schrire), y N. Peterson 1969 Ethnographic interpretations of the prehistory of Western Arnhem Land. Southwestem Journal of Anthropology 25: 45-69.
White, R. 1982 Rethinking the Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition. Current Anthropology 23(2): 169192.
White, T. 1953 Observations on the butchering technique of some aboriginal peoples. American Antiquity 19(3): 160-164.
Williams, B. 1974 A model of Bantú society. American Antiquity Memoirs 39.
Woodburn, J. 1968 Stability and flexibility in Hadza residential groupings. En Man The Hunter, R. Lee e I. DeVore (eds.), pp. 103-110. Aldine, Chicago. 1982 Egalitarian societies. Man 17: 431-451.
Wylie, A. 1982 An analogy by any other name is just as analogical: a commentary on the GouldWatson dialogue. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1: 382-401.
Bellwood, P. 1985 Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago. Academic Press, Sydney.
Bender, B. 1985 Prehistoric developments in the American Midcontinent and in Brittany, Northwest France. En Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers: The Emergence of Cultural Complexity, J. Price y J. Brown (eds.), pp. 21-57. Academic Press, Orlando.
Binford, L. 1967 Smudge pits and hide smoking: the use of analogy in archaeological reasoning. American Antiquity 32(1): 1-12. 1968 An Etnohistory of the Nottoway, Meherrin and Weacnock indians of Southwestern Virginia. Etnohistory 14(3-4) (whole number). 1977a General introduction. En For Theory Building in Archaeology, L. Binford (ed.), pp. 1-10. Academic Press, New York. 1977b Historical Archaeology, is it Historical or Archaeological? En Historical Archaeology and the Importance of Material Things, L. Ferguson (eds.), pp. 13-22. The Society for Historical Archaeology, New York.
1980 Willow smoke and dog's tails: hunter-gatherer settlement systems and archaeological site formation. American Antiquity 45: 4-20. 1981 Bones. Ancient Men and Modern Myths. Academic Press, New York. 1982 The archaeology of place. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1(1): 5-31. 1983 Long term land use patterns: some implications for archaeology. Lulu Linear Punctated: En Essays in Honor of George Irving Quimby, R. Dunnell y D. Grayson (eds.), pp. 27-53. Anthropological Papers 72, University of Ann Arbor.
Borrero, L. 1984 Transporte y trozamiento de guanacos: otra discusión sobre la analogía etnográfica. Trabajo presentado al Quinto Congreso de Historia Fueguina, Ushuaia. 1986 La Economía Prehistórica de los Habitantes del Norte de la Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego. Tesis de Doctorado. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires.
Borrero, L. y H. Yacobaccio 1989 Etnoarqueología de asentamientos Aché (cazadores- recolectores del Paraguay Oriental). Ms.
Bridges, E. 1951 Uttermost Part of the Earth. Hodder y Stoughton, London.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. 1986 African pygmies: an evaluation of the state of research. En African Pygmies, L. CavalliSforza (ed.), pp. 361-423. Academic Press, Orlando.
Chang, C. 1982 Nomads without cattle: East African foragers in historical perspective. En Politics and History of Band Societies, E. Leacocj y R. Lee (ed.), pp. 269- 282. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Clarke, D. 1976 Mesolithic Europe: the economic basis. En Problems in Social and Economic Archaeology, G. Sieverking, I. Longworth y K. Uilson (eds.). Duckworth, London.
Clastres, P. 1972 Chronique des Indiens Guayaki. Pión, Eureux.
Cole, F. C. 1945 The Peoples of Malaysia. Van Nostrand Co., New York.
Conkey, W. 1984 To find durselues: art and social geography of prehistoric hunter-gatherers. En Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 253-276. Academic Press, Orlando.
Dahlberg, F. (ed.) 1981 Woman the Gatherer. Yale University Press, New Haven.
DeNiro, M. 1987 Stable isotopy and archaeology. African Scientist 75: 182-191.
Eaton, R. 1978 The evolution of trophy hunting. Carnivore 1(1): 110-121.
Estioko-Griffin, A. y P. Griffin 1981 Woman the hunter: the Agta. En Woman the Gatherer, F. Oahlberg (ed.), pp. 121-151. Yale University Press, New Haven & London.
Fedigan, L. 1986 The changing role of women in models of human evolution. Annual Review of Anthropology 15: 25-66.
Foley, R. 1982 A reconsideration of the role of predation on large mammals in Tropical HunterGatherer adaptation. Man 17: 393-402.
Frison, G.; Todd, L. y B. Bradley 1987 Summary and concluding remarks. En The Horner Site. The Type Site of the Cody Cultural Complex, G. Frison y L. Todd (eds.), pp. 361-369. Academic Press, Orlando.
Gamble, C. 1986 The Paleolithic Settlement of Europe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gould, R. 1980 Living Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gould, R. y P. Watson 1982 A dialogue on the meaning and use of analogy in ethno-archaeological reasoning. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1: 355-381.
Griffin, P. 1984 Forager resource and land use in the tropics: the Agta of N.E. Luzon, The Philippines. En Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 95-121. Academic Press, Orlando.
Griffin, P. y A. Estioko-Griffin 1978 Ethnoarchaeology in the Philippines. Archaeology 31(6): 34-43.
Gusinde, M. 1982 Los Indios de Tierra del Fuego. I. Los Selknam. CONICET/CAEA, Buenos Aires.
Hardesty, D. 1986 Rethinking cultural adaptation. Professional Geographer 38(1): 11-18.
Hayden, B.; Deal, M.; Cannon, A. y J. Casey 1986 Ecological determinants of women's status among hunter/gatherers. Human Evolution 1(5): 449-474.
Hewlett, B.; Van de Koppel, J. y W. Van de Koppel 1986 Causes of death among Aka Pygmies of the Central African Republic. En African Pygmies, L. Cavalli- Sforza (ed.), pp. 45-63. Academic Press, Orlando.
Hill, K. 1983 Los Aché del Paraguay Oriental: condiciones actuales e historia reciente. Suplemento Antropológico XVIII(1): 149-177.
Hoffman, C. 1984 Punan foragers in the trading networks of Southeast Asia. En Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 123-149. Academic Press, Orlando. 1986 The Punan, Hunters and Gatherers of Borneo. UMI Research Press, Ann Arbor.
Jarvenpa, R. 1980 The trappers of Patuanak: toward a spatial ecology of modern hunters. En Canadian Ethnology Service, Paper 67, Ottawa.
Kroeber, A. 1979 The elusive mill creeks. En Ishi the Last Yahi. A Documentary History, R. Heizer y T. Kroeber (eds.), pp. 80-87. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Lathrap, D. 1968 The 'hunting' economies of the Tropical Forest Zone of South America: an attempt at historical perspective. En Man the Hunter, R. Lee e I. DeVore (eds.), pp. 23-29. Aldine, Chicago.
Leacock, E. y R. Lee 1982 Introduction. En Politics and History in Band Societies, E. Leacock y R. Lee (eds.), pp. 120. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lee, R. 1968 What hunters do for a living, or how to make out on scarce resources? En Man the Hunter, R. Lee e I. DeVore (eds.), pp. 30-38. Aldine, Chicago. 1979 The !Kung San. Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lee, R. e I. DeVore (eds.) 1968 Man the Hunter. Aldine, Chicago.
Leone, M. 1983 Symbolic, structural, and critical archaeology. En American Archaeology. Past and Future, D. Pleltzer, D. Fouler y J. Sabloff (eds.), pp. 415-438. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington & London.
Little, M. 1983 An overview of adaptation. En Rethinking Human Adaptation, R. Dyson-Hudson y M. Little (eds.), pp. 137-147. Westview Press, Boulder.
McCarthy, F. y M. W. Arthur 1960 The food quest and the time factor in aboriginal economic live. En Anthropology and Nutrition: Records of the American-Australian Scientific Expedition to Arnhem Land 1948, C. Mountford (ed.), vol. 2, pp. 145-194. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.
Moran, E. 1983 Mobility as a negative factor in human adaptability: the case of South American tropical forest populations. En Rethinking Human Adaptation: Biological and Cultural Models, R. Dyson-Hudson y M. Little (eds.), pp. 117-135. Westview Press, Boulder.
Morris, B. 1982a The family, group structuring and trade among South Indian hunters-gatherers. En Politics and History in Band Societies, E. Leacock y R. Lee (eds.), pp. 171-187. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
1982b Economy, affinity and inter-cultural pressure: notes around Hill Pandaram group structure. Man 17: 452-461.
O'Connell, J. 1979 Room to move: contemporary Alyawara settlement patterns and their implications for aboriginal housing policy. En A Black Reality: Aboriginal Camps and Housing in Remote Australia, H. Neppell (ed.), pp. 97-120. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra. 1987 Alyawara site structure and its archaeological implications. American Antiquity 52(1): 74108.
O'Connell, J. y K. Hawkes 1984 Food choice and foraging sites among the Alyawara. Journal of Anthropological Research 40(4): 504-535.
O'Connell; Hawkes, K. y N. Blurton-Jones 1987 Hadza scavenging: implications for Plio-Pleistocene hominid subsistence. Ms.
Parkington, J. 1984 Soaqua and Bushmen: hunters and robbers. En Past and Present in Hunter-gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 151-174. Academic Press, Orlando.
Peterson, W. 1981 Recent adaptive shifts among Palanan hunters of the Philippines. Man 16(1): 43-61.
Sabloff, J.; Binford, L. y P. McAnany 1987 Understanding the archaeological record. Antiquity 61: 203-209.
Schrire, C. 1972 Ethno-archaeological models and subsistence behavior in Arnhem Land. En Models in Archaeology, O. Clarke (ed.), pp. 653-670. Methuen, London. 1984a Wild surmises on savage thoughts. En Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 1-25. Academic Press, Orlando. 1984b Interactions of past and present in Arnhem Land, North Australia. En Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer Studies, C. Schrire (ed.), pp. 67-93. Academic Press, Orlando.
Smith, E. 1983 Anthropological applications of Optimal Foraging Theory: a critical review. Current Anthropology 24(5): 625-551.
Speth, J. 1983 Bison Kills and Bone Counts. Decision Making by Ancient Hunters. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Thomson, D. 1939 The seasonal factor in human culture, illustrated from the life of a contemporary nomadic group. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 5: 209-221.
Turnbull, C. 1983 The Mbuti Pygmies. Change and Adaptation. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. 1986 Survival factors among Mbuti and other hunters of the Equatorial African Rainforest. En African Pygmies, L. Cavalli-Sforza (ed.), pp. 103-123. Academic Press, Orlando.
Vellard, J. 1934 Les indiens Guayaki. Journal de la Societé des Americanistes 26 : 223- 295.
White, C. (Schrire) 1967 The prehistory of the Kakadu people. Mankind 6(9): 426-431.
White C. (Schrire), y N. Peterson 1969 Ethnographic interpretations of the prehistory of Western Arnhem Land. Southwestem Journal of Anthropology 25: 45-69.
White, R. 1982 Rethinking the Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition. Current Anthropology 23(2): 169192.
White, T. 1953 Observations on the butchering technique of some aboriginal peoples. American Antiquity 19(3): 160-164.
Williams, B. 1974 A model of Bantú society. American Antiquity Memoirs 39.
Woodburn, J. 1968 Stability and flexibility in Hadza residential groupings. En Man The Hunter, R. Lee e I. DeVore (eds.), pp. 103-110. Aldine, Chicago. 1982 Egalitarian societies. Man 17: 431-451.
Wylie, A. 1982 An analogy by any other name is just as analogical: a commentary on the GouldWatson dialogue. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1: 382-401.