Normatividad ingenua
El fundamento social de la cognición moral
Palavras-chave:
Psicología moral, Evolución de la moralidad, Cognición animal, Psicología folkResumo
Para responder algunas preguntas atractivas, tales como si los animales son criaturas morales o cómo ha evolucionado la moral, propongo comenzar con una pregunta algo menos complicada: ¿poseen los animales cognición normativa? Las investigaciones recientes en psicología sugieren que el pensamiento normativo, o pensamiento deóntico (ought-thought), comienza temprano en el desarrollo humano. Las investigaciones recientes en filosofía sugieren que la psicología ordinaria se encuentra basada en el pensamiento normativo. Investigaciones recientes en primatología aportan evidencia de capacidades sofisticadas de aprendizaje cultural y social en grandes simios. Basándome en estas tres literaturas, sostengo que la variedad humana de cognición social y cognición moral abarca las mismas capacidades cognitivas y que los grandes simios también pueden ser criaturas normativas. Para argumentar esto, desarrollo una explicación de las normas sociales animales que comparte propiedades fundamentales con la explicación de Cristina Bicchieri sobre las normas sociales, pero que reduce los requerimientos cognitivos para poseer una norma social. Propongo un conjunto de cuatro pre-requisitos de desarrollo temprano implicados en la cognición social que constituyen lo que denomino normatividad ingenua: (1) la habilidad para identificar agentes, (2) la sensibilidad a las diferencias entre el grupo de pertenencia y el grupo externo, (3) la capacidad para el aprendizaje social de las tradiciones grupales y (4) la sensibilidad a lo apropiado. Examino la literatura sobre cognición en simios y presento evidencia empírica preliminar que apoya la existencia de normas sociales y normatividad ingenua en grandes simios. Aunque queda mucho trabajo empírico por hacer, espero haber ofrecido un marco teórico para estudiar la normatividad en otras especies y concluyo que deberíamos estar abiertos a la posibilidad de que la cognición normativa sea otro antiguo legado cognitivo que no es exclusivo de los seres humanos.
Publicación original: Andrews, K. (2020). Naïve Normativity: The Social Foundation of Moral Cognition. Journal of the American Philosophical Association, 6(1), 36-56. https://doi.org/10.1017/apa.2019.30
Downloads
Referências
Allen, J. W. P., & Bickhard, M. H. (2011). Emergent Constructivism. Child Development Perspectives, 5(3), 164–65.
Andrews, K. (2012). Do Apes Read Minds? Toward a New Folk Psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Andrews, K. (2015). The Folk Psychological Spiral: Explanation, Regulation, and Language. Southern Journal of Philosophy, 53(1), 50–60.
Banerjee, R., Bennett, M., & Luke, N. (2010). Children’s Reasoning about the Self-Presentational Consequences of Apologies and Excuses Following Rule Violations. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 28, 799–815.
Bian, L., Sloane, S., & Baillargeon, R. (2018). Infants Expect Ingroup Support to Override Fairness When Resources Are Limited. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(11), 2705–10.
Bicchieri, C. (2017). Norms in the Wild: How to Diagnose, Measure, and Change Social Norms. New York: Oxford University Press.
Boesch, C. (1994). Cooperative Hunting in Wild Chimpanzees. Animal Behavior, 48, 653–67.
Braithwaite, J. (2002). Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Brosnan, S. F., Talbot, C., Ahlgren, M., Lambeth, S. P., & Shapiro, S. J. (2010). Mechanisms Underlying Responses to Inequitable Outcomes in Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. Animal Behaviour, 79(6), 1229–37.
Brosnan, S. F., Schiff, H. C., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2005). Tolerance for Inequity May Increase with Social Closeness in Chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 272(1560), 253–58.
Buttelmann, D., Zmyj, N., Daum, M., & Carpenter, M. (2013). Selective Imitation of In-Group over Out-Group Members in 14-Month-Old Infants. Child Development, 84(2), 422–28.
Byrne, R. W., & Russon, A. E. (1998). Learning by Imitation: A Hierarchical Approach. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21(5), 667-84.
Crawford, M. P. (1937). The Cooperative Solving of Problems by Young Chimpanzees. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
Engelmann, J. M,. & Herrmann, E. (2016). Chimpanzees Trust Their Friends. Current Biology, 26(2), 252–6.
Fitzpatrick, S. (2017). Animal Morality: What Is the Debate About? Biology and Philosophy, 32(6), 1151–83.
Fraser, O. N., Stahl, D., & Aureli, F. (2008). Stress Reduction through Consolation in Chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(25), 8557–62.
Gergely, G., Nádasdy, Z., Gergely, C., & Bíró, S. (1995). Taking the Intentional Stance at 12 Months of Age. Cognition, 56(2), 165–93.
Gergely, G., Bekkering, H., & Király, I. (2002). Rational Imitation in Preverbal Infants. Nature, 415(6873), 755.
Goodall, J. (1986). Social Rejection, Exclusion, and Shunning among the Gombe Chimpanzees. Ethology and Sociobiology, 7, 227–36.
Henrich, J. (2017). The Secret of Our Success: How Culture Is Driving Human Evolution, Domesticating Our Species, and Making Us Smarter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Hirata, S., & Fuwa, K. (2007). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) Learn to Act with Other Individuals in a Cooperative Task. Primates, 48(1), 13–21.
Hockings, K. J., Anderson, J. R, & Matsuzawa, T. (2006). Road Crossing in Chimpanzees: A Risky Business. Current Biology, 1(17), R668–70.
Hopper, L. M., Spiteri, A., Lambeth, S. P., Schapiro, S. J., Horner, V., & Whiten, A. (2007). Experimental Studies of Traditions and Underlying Transmission Processes in Chimpanzees. Animal Behaviour, 73(6), 1021–32.
Hopper, L. M., Susan P. Lambeth, S. P., Schapiro, S. J., & Whiten, A. (2008). Observational Learning in Chimpanzees and Children Studied through “Ghost” Conditions. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 275(1636), 835–40.
Horner, V., & Whiten, A. (2004). Causal Knowledge and Imitation/Emulation Switching in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and Children (Homo sapiens). Animal Cognition, 8, 164–81.
Horner, V., Whiten, A., Flynn, E., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2006). Faithful Copying of Foraging Techniques along Cultural Transmission Chains by Chimpanzees and Children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(37), 13878–83.
Jensen, K., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Chimpanzees are Vengeful but not Spiteful. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(32), 13046–50.
Jin, Kyong-sun, & Baillargeon, R. (2017). Infants Possess an Abstract Expectation of Ingroup Support’. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(31), 8199–8204.
Kahlenberg, S. M., Emory Thompson, M., Muller, M. N., & Wrangham, R. W. (2008). Immigration Costs for Female Chimpanzees and Male Protection as an Immigrant Counterstrategy to Intrasexual Aggression. Animal Behaviour, 76, 1497–509.
Kelly, D. J., Quinn, P. C., Slater, A. M., Lee, K., Gibson, A., Smith, M., Ge, L., & Pascalis, O. (2005). Three-Month-Olds, But Not Newborns, Prefer Own-Race Faces. Developmental Science, 8(6), F31–36, 459–620.
Kendal, R., Hopper, L. M., Whiten, A., Brosnan, S. F., Lambeth, S. P., Schapiro, S. J., & Hoppitt, W. (2015). Chimpanzees Copy Dominant and Knowledgeable Individuals: Implications for Cultural Diversity. Evolution and Human Behavior, 36(1), 65–72.
Kinzler K. D., Dupoux, E., & Spelke, E. S. (2007). The Native Language of Social Cognition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(30), 12577–80.
Kitcher, P. (2011). The Ethical Project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Korsgaard, C. (2018). Fellow Creatures: Our Obligations to the Other Animals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kutsukake, N., &. Castles, D. L. (2004). Reconciliation and Post-conflict Third-Party Affiliation among Wild Chimpanzees in the Mahale Mountains,Tanzania. Primates, 45(3), 157–65.
van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Cronin, K. A., & Haun, D. B. M. (2014). A Group-Specific Arbitrary Tradition in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Animal Cognition, 17, 1421–25.
Liberman, Z., Kinzler, K. D., & Woodward, A. L. 2014. Friends or Foes: Infants Use Shared Evaluations to Infer Others’ Social Relationships. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(3), 966–71.
Luncz, L. V., & Boesch, C. (2014). Tradition over Trend: Neighboring Chimpanzee Communities Maintain Differences in Cultural Behavior despite Frequent Immigration of Adult Females. American Journal of Primatology, 76(7), 649–57.
Luncz, L. V., Mundry, R., & Boesch, C. (2012). Evidence for Cultural Differences between Neighboring Chimpanzee Communities. Current Biology, 22, 922–26.
Lyons, D. E., Young, A. G., & Keil, F. C. (2007). The Hidden Structure of Overimitation. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences, 104(50), 19751–56.
Mahajan, N., & Wynn, K. (2012). Origins of “Us” versus “Them”: Prelinguistic Infants Prefer Similar Others. Cognition, 124(2012), 227–33.
Maibom, H. L. (2007). Social Systems. Philosophical Psychology, 20(5), 557–78.
McGeer, V. (2007). The Regulative Dimension of Folk Psychology. En Hutto, D. D. y Ratcliffe, M. (Eds.), Folk Psychology Re-Assessed (pp. 137-56). Dordrecht: Springer.
McGeer, V. (2015). Mind-Making Practices: The Social Infrastructure of Self-Knowing Agency and Responsibility. Philosophical Explorations, 18(2), 259–81.
Meltzoff, A. N. (1988). Infant Imitation after a 1-Week Delay: Long-Term Memory for Novel Acts and Multiple Stimuli. Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 470–76.
Mendes, N., Steinbeis, N., Bueno-Guerra, N., Call, J. & Singer, T. (2018). Preschool Children and Chimpanzees Incur Costs to Watch Punishment of Antisocial Others. Nature Human Behaviour, 2, 45–51.
Monsó, S. (2015). Empathy and Morality in Behaviour Readers. Biology and Philosophy, 30, 671–90.
Monsó, S., & Kristin A. (en revisión). Animal Moral Psychologies. En Doris, J. M. & Vargas, M. (eds.), The Moral Psychology Handbook (segunda edición) (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Murray, C. M., Wroblewski, E., & Pusey, A. E. (2007). New Case of Intragroup Infanticide in the Chimpanzees of Gombe National Park. International Journal of Primatology, 28, 23–37.
Myowa-Yamakoshi, M., & Matsuzawa, T. (2000). Imitation of Intentional Manipulatory Actions in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 114, (4), 381–391.
Nishida, T. (2012) Chimpanzees of the Lakeshore: Natural History and Culture at Mahale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nucci, L. P., & Turiel, E. (1978). Social Interactions and the Development of Social Concepts in Preschool Children. Child Development, 49, 400–7.
Oakes, L. M. (2010). Using Habituation of Looking Time to Assess Mental Processes in Infancy. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11, (3), 255–68.
Ohashi, G., & Matsuzawa, T. (2011). Deactivation of Snares by Wild Chimpanzees. Primates, 52, (1), 1–5.
Proctor, D., Williamson, R. A., de Waal, F. B. M., & Brosnan, S. F. (2013). Chimpanzees Play the Ultimatum Game. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences, 110(6), 2070–75.
Pun, A., Ferera, M., Diesendruck, G., Hamlin, J. K., & Baron, A. S. (2018). Foundations of Infants’ Social Group Evaluations. Developmental Science, 21(3), e12586.
Rakoczy, H., Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2008). The Sources of Normativity: Young Children’s Awareness of the Normative Structure of Games. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 875–81.
Rakoczy, H., Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Young Children’s Selective Learning of Rule Games from Reliable and Unreliable Models. Cognitive Development, 24, 61–9.
Richerson, P. J., & Boyd, R. (2005). Not By Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Cognition. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Riedl, K., Jensen, K., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2012). No Third-Party Punishment in Chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences, 109(37), 14824–29.
Rowlands, M. (2012) Can Animals Be Moral? New York: Oxford University Press.
Rudolf von Rohr, C., Koski, S. E., Burkart, J. M., Caws, C., Fraser, O. N., Ziltener, A., & van Schaik, C. P. (2012). Impartial Third-Party Interventions in Captive Chimpanzees: A Reflection of Community Concern. PLoS ONE 7, e32494.
Rudolf von Rohr, C., van Schaik, C. P., Kissling, A., & Burkart, J. M. (2015). Chimpanzees’ Bystander Reactions to Infanticide. Human Nature, 26(2), 143–60.
Sterelny, Kim. (2012). The Evolved Apprentice: How Evolution Made Humans Unique. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Suchak, M., Eppley, T. M., Campbell, M. W., Feldman, R. A., Quarles, L. F., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2016). How Chimpanzees Cooperate in a Competitive World. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences, 113(36), 10215–20.
Suddendorf, T. (2013) The Gap: The Science of What Separates Us from Other Animals. New York: Basic Books.
Tennie, C., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Push or Pull: Imitation vs. Emulation in Great Apes and Human Children. Ethology, 112(12), 1159–69.
Tomasello, M. (1999). The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Tomasello, M. (2014). A Natural History of Human Thinking. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Uller, C. (2004). Disposition to Recognize Goals in Infant Chimpanzees. Animal Cognition, 7, 154–61.
Vincent, S., Ring, R., & Andrews, K. (2019). Normative Practices of Other Animals. En Zimmerman, A., Jones, K. & Timmons, M. (eds.), Routledge Handbook of Moral Epistemology (pp. 57-83). New York: Routledge.
de Waal, F. B. M. (1982). Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes. London: Jonathan Cape.
de Waal, F. B. M. (2006). The Tower of Morality. En Ober, J. & Macedo, S. (eds.), Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved (pp. 161-181). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
de Waal, F. B. M. (2009). The Age of Empathy: Nature’s Lessons for a Kinder Society. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.
de Waal, F. B. M. (2014). Natural Normativity: The ‘‘Is’’ and ‘‘Ought’’ of Animal Behaviour. Behaviour, 151, 185–204.
de Waal, F. B. M., & Brosnan, S. F. (2003). Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay. Nature, 425, 297.
Watts, D. P., & Mitani, J. C. (2001). Boundary Patrols and Intergroup Encounters in Wild Chimpanzees. Behaviour, 138(3), 299–337.
Watts, D. P., Muller, M., Amsler, S., Mbabazi, G., & Mitani, J. C. (2006). Lethal Intergroup Aggression by Chimpanzees in Kibale National Park, Uganda. American Journal of Primatology, 68(2), 161–80.
Webb, C. E., Teresa Romero, T., Franks, B., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2017). Long-Term Consistency in Chimpanzee Consolation Behaviour Reflects Empathetic Personalities. Nature Communications, 8(1), 292.
Whiten, A., McGuigan, N., Marshall-Pescini, S., & Hopper, L. M. (2009). Emulation, Imitation, Over-Imitation and the Scope of Culture for Child and Chimpanzee. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 364, (1528), 2417–28.
Whiten, A., Spiteri, A., Horner, V., Bonnie, K., Lambeth, S. P., Schapiro, S. J., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2007). Transmission of Multiple Traditions within and between Chimpanzee Groups. Current Biology, 17, (12), 1038–43.
Wiessner, P., & Pupu, N. (2012). Toward Peace: Indigenous Institutions and Foreign Arms in a Papua New Guinea Society. Science, 337(6102), 1651–54.
Woodward, A. L. (1999). Infants’ Ability to Distinguish between Purposeful and Non-purposeful Behaviors. Infant Behavior and Development, 22(2), 145–60.
Xiao, N. G., Wu, R., Quinn, P. C., Liu, S., Tummeltshammer, K. S., Kirkham, N. Z., Ge, L., Pascalis, O., & Lee, K. (2018). Infants Rely More on Gaze Cues from Own-Race than Other-Race Adults for Learning under Uncertainty. Child Development, 89(3), e229–44.
Yamamoto, S., Humle, T., & Tanaka, M. (2009). Chimpanzees Help Each Other Upon Request. PLoS ONE, 4, e7416.
Zawidzki, T. W. (2013) Mindshaping: A New Framework for Understanding Human Social Cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Downloads
Publicado
Como Citar
Edição
Seção
Licença
Copyright (c) 2021 Epistemología e Historia de la Ciencia
![Creative Commons License](http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-nd/4.0/88x31.png)
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
En todos los lugares donde aplique, esta obra está bajo una licencia Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial-SinObrasDerivadas 4.0 .
- Los autores/as conservarán sus derechos de autor y garantizarán a la revista el derecho de primera publicación de su obra, el cual estará simultáneamente sujeto a la Licencia de reconocimiento de Creative Commons que permite a terceros compartir la obra, siempre que se indique su autor y su primera publicación en esta revista.
- Los autores/as podrán adoptar otros acuerdos de licencia no exclusiva de distribución de la versión de la obra publicada (p. ej.: depositarla en un archivo digital institucional o publicarla en un volumen monográfico), siempre que se indique la publicación inicial en esta revista.
- Se permite y recomienda a los autores/as difundir su obra a través de Internet (p. ej.: en archivos digitales institucionales o en su página web) antes y durante el proceso de envío.
- Las licencias de las imágenes de terceros incluidas en los artículos pueden estar sujetas a otros términos; los autores/as son responsables de asegurar la veracidad de su origen, la información de la fuente original provista y su permiso de reproducción en esta publicación, que puede ser exclusivo.