Discriminación en el condicionamiento del sobresalto potenciado por el miedo en humanos
Contenido principal del artículo
Resumen
En un experimento de sobresalto potenciado por el miedo, los participantes fueron entrenados en una tarea de discriminación donde una imagen A se emparejó con un pulso eléctrico, mientras que otra imagen, B, se presentó por sí sola (i.e., A+ B-). En una prueba, la respuesta de sobresalto, medida como parpadeo, fue evaluada al presentar un soplo de aire o un ruido blanco en presencia o ausencia de las imágenes A y B. Los resultados muestran un mayor parpadeo al soplo de aire en presencia de A que en presencia de B, y en ausencia de cualquier estímulo, solo en aquellos participantes que percibieron el pulso eléctrico como altamente doloroso. En conclusión, estos hallazgos sugieren que el miedo condicionado se relaciona linealmente con la intensidad del pulso eléctrico.
Detalles del artículo
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.
La RACC aplicará la licencia internacional de atribuciones comunes creativas (Reconocimiento 4.0 Internacional: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Bajo esta licencia, se permite cualquier explotación de la obra, incluyendo la explotación con fines comerciales y la creación de obras derivadas, la distribución de las cuales también está permitida sin ninguna restricción. Esta licencia es una licencia libre según la Freedom Defined. La única condición es que siempre y en todos los casos se cite a los autores y a la fuente original de publicación (i.e., RACC). Esta licencia fue desarrollada para facilitar el acceso abierto, gratuito y libre a trabajos originales científicos y artísticos.
Cómo citar
Referencias
Ameli, R., & Grillon, C. (2001). Contextual fear-potentiated startle conditioning in humans: Replication and extension. Psychophysiology, 38(3), 383-390. doi: 10.1111/1469-8986.3830383
Annau, Z., & Kamin, L. J. (1961). The Conditioned Emotional Response as a Function of Intensity of the US. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 54(4), 428–432. doi: 10.1037/h0042199
Asli, O., & Flaten, M. A. (2012). How fast is fear? Automatic and controlled processing in conditioned fear. Journal of Psychophysiology, 26(1), 20-28. doi: 10.1027/0269-8803/a000063
Asli, O., Kulvedrøsten, S., Solbakken, L. E., & Flaten, M. A. (2009). Fear potentiated startle at short intervals following conditioned stimulus onset during delay but not trace conditioning. Psychophysiology, 46(4), 880-888. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00809.x
Baas, J. M., Klumpers, F., Mantione, M. H., Figee, M., Vulink, N. C., Schuurman, P. R., … Denys, D. (2014). No impact of deep brain stimulation on fear-potentiated startle in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8(305), 1-9. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00305
Baas, J. M., Nugent, M., Lissek, S., Pine, D. S., & Grillon, C. (2004). Fear Conditioning in Virtual Reality Contexts: A New Tool for the Study of Anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 55(11), 1056-1060. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.02.024
Ballard, E. D., Ionescu, D. F., Voort, J. L. V., Slonena, E. E., Franco-Chaves, J. A., Zarate Jr, C. A., & Grillon, C. (2014). Increased fear-potentiated startle in major depressive disorder patients with lifetime history of suicide attempt. Journal of Affective Disorders, 162, 34-38. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.03.027
Beckers, T., Krypotos, A. M., Boddez, Y., Effting, M., & Kindt, M. (2013). What's wrong with fear conditioning? Biological Psychology, 92(1), 90-96. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.12.015
Blanchard, R. J., & Blanchard, D. C. (1969). Crouching as an index of fear. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 67(3), 370-375. doi: 10.1037/h0026779
Blumenthal, T. D., Cuthbert, B. N., Filion, D. L., Hackley, S., Lipp, O. V., & Van Boxtel, A. (2005). Committee report: Guidelines for human startle eyeblink electromyographic studies. Psychophysiology, 42(1), 1-15. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00271.x
Boddez, Y., Baeyens, F., Hermans, D., & Beckers, T. (2013). Reappraisal of threat value: Loss of blocking in human aversive conditioning. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 16, 1-10. doi: 10.1017/sjp.2013.84
Boddez, Y., Vervliet, B., Baeyens, F., Lauwers, S., Hermans, D., & Beckers, T. (2012). Expectancy bias in a selective conditioning procedure: Trait anxiety increases the threat value of a blocked stimulus. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43(2), 832-837. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.11.005
Borelli, J. L., Ruiz, S. K., Crowley, M. J., Mayes, L. C., De los Reyes, A., & Lewin, A. B. (2015). Children’s obsessive compulsive symptoms and fear-potentiated startle responses. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 6, 101-107. doi: 10.1016/j.jocrd.2015.06.006
Boren, J. J., Sidman, M., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1959). Avoidance, escape, and extinction as functions of shock intensity. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 52(4), 420-425. doi: 10.1037/h0042727
Brown, J. S., Kalish, H. I., & Farber, I. E. (1951). Conditioned fear as revealed by magnitude of startle response to an auditory stimulus. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 41(5), 317-328. doi: 10.1037/h0060166
Davis, M. (2001). Fear‐potentiated startle in rats. Current Protocols in Neuroscience, 14(1), 1-11. doi: 10.1002/0471142301.ns0811as14
Davis, M., & Astrachan, D. I. (1978). Conditioned fear and startle magnitude: effects of different footshock or backshock intensities used in training. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 4(2), 95-103. doi: 10.1037/0097-7403.4.2.95
Davis, M., Walker, D. L., Miles, L., & Grillon, C. (2010). Phasic vs sustained fear in rats and humans: Role of the extended amygdala in fear vs anxiety. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(1), 105-135. doi: 10.1038/npp.2009.109.
Delorme, A., & Makeig, S. (2004). EEGLAB: An open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis. Journal of Neuroscience Methods,134(1), 9-21. doi: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009
Dunning, J. P., & Hajcak, G. (2015). Gradients of fear potentiated startle during generalization, extinction, and extinction recall—and their relations with worry. Behavior Therapy, 46(5), 640-651. doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2015.06.005
Dunsmoor, J. E., & Paz, R. (2015). Fear generalization and anxiety: behavioral and neural mechanisms. Biological Psychiatry, 78(5), 336-343. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.04.010
Fani, N., King, T. Z., Brewster, R., Srivastava, A., Stevens, J. S., Glover, E. M., ... Jovanovic, T. (2015). Fear-potentiated startle during extinction is associated with white matter microstructure and functional connectivity. Cortex, 64, 249-259. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2014.11.006
Fendt, M., & Koch, M. (2013). Translational value of startle modulations. Cell and Tissue Research, 354(1), 287-295. doi: 10.1007/s00441-013-1599-5
Ghirlanda, S., & Ibadullayev, I. (2015). Solution of the Comparator Theory of Associative Learning. Psychological Review, 122(2), 242-259. doi: 10.1037/a0038694
Glenn, C. R., Lieberman, L., & Hajcak, G. (2012). Comparing electric shock and a fearful screaming face as unconditioned stimuli for fear learning. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 86(3), 214-219. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.09.006
Grillon, C. (2002). Associative learning deficits increase symptoms of anxiety in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 51(11), 851-858. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01370-1
Grillon, C. (2008). Models and mechanisms of anxiety: Evidence from startle studies. Psychopharmacology, 199(3), 421-437. doi: 10.1007/s00213-007-1019-1
Grillon, C., & Ameli, R. (1998). Effects of threat and safety signals on startle during anticipation of aversive shocks, sounds, or airblasts. Journal of Psychophysiology, 12(4), 329–337.
Grillon, C., & Baas, J. (2003). A review of the modulation of the startle reflex by affective states and its application in psychiatry. Clinical Neurophysiology, 114(9), 1557-1579. doi: 10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00202-5
Grillon, C., & Davis, M. (1997). Fear‐potentiated startle conditioning in humans: Explicit and contextual cue conditioning following paired versus unpaired training. Psychophysiology, 34(4), 451-458. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02389.x
Grillon, C., & Morgan III, C. A. (1999). Fear-potentiated startle conditioning to explicit and contextual cues in Gulf War veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(1), 134-142. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.108.1.134
Haesen, K., Beckers, T., Baeyens, F., & Vervliet, B. (2017). One-trial overshadowing: Evidence for fast specific fear learning in humans. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 90, 16-24. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2016.12.001
Hitchcock, J., & Davis, M. (1986). Lesions of the amygdala, but not of the cerebellum or red nucleus, block conditioned fear as measured with the potentiated startle paradigm. Behavioral Neuroscience, 100(1), 11–22. doi: 10.1037/0735-7044.100.1.11
Jovanovic, T., Keyes, M., Fiallos, A., Myers, K. M., Davis, M., & Duncan, E. J. (2005). Fear potentiation and fear inhibition in a human fear-potentiated startle paradigm. Biological Psychiatry, 57(12), 1559-1564. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.025
Leaton, R. N., & Borszcz, G. S. (1985). Potentiated startle: Its relation to freezing and shock intensity in rats. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 11(3), 421–428. doi: 10.1037/0097-7403.11.3.421
LeDoux, J. E., & Pine, D. S. (2016). Using neuroscience to help understand fear and anxiety: A two-system framework. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 173(11),1083-1093. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16030353
Lindner, K., Neubert, J., Pfannmöller, J., Lotze, M., Hamm, A. O., & Wendt, J. (2015). Fear-potentiated startle processing in humans: parallel fMRI and orbicularis EMG assessment during cue conditioning and extinction. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 98(3), 535-545. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.02.025
Lissek, S. (2012). Toward an Account of Clinical Anxiety Predicated on Basic, Neurally-Mapped Mechanisms of Pavlovian Fear-Learning: The Case for Conditioned Overgeneralization. Depression & Anxiety, 29(4), 257-263. doi: 10.1002/da.21922
Lissek, S., Baas, J. M., Pine, D. S., Orme, K., Dvir, S., Nugent, M., ... Grillon, C. (2005). Airpuff startle probes: An efficacious and less aversive alternative to white-noise. Biological Psychology, 68(3), 283-297. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.07.007
Lissek, S., Biggs, A. L., Rabin, S. J., Cornwell, B. R., Alvarez, R. P., Pine, D. S., & Grillon, C. (2008). Generalization of conditioned fear-potentiated startle in humans: Experimental validation and clinical relevance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(5), 678-687. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2008.02.005
Lissek, S., Kaczkurkin, A. N., Rabin, S., Geraci, M., Pine, D. S., & Grillon, C. (2014). Generalized anxiety disorder is associated with overgeneralization of classically conditioned fear. Biological Psychiatry,75(11), 909-915. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.07.025
Lissek, S., Powers, A. S., McClure, E. B., Phelps, E. A., Woldehawariat, G., Grillon, C., & Pine, D. S. (2005). Classical fear conditioning in the anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(11), 1391-1424. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2004.10.007
Lissek, S., Rabin, S., Heller, R. E., Lukenbaugh, D., Geraci, M., Pine, D. S., … Grillon, C. (2010). Overgeneralization of conditioned fear as a pathogenic marker of panic disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(1), 47-55. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09030410
Lissek, S., Rabin, S. J., McDowell, D. J., Dvir, S., Bradford, D. E., Geraci, M., … Grillon, C. (2009). Impaired discriminative fear-conditioning resulting from elevated fear responding to learned safety cues among individuals with panic disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(2), 111-118. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2008.10.017
Lopez-Calderon, J., & Luck, S. J. (2014). ERPLAB: an open-source toolbox for the analysis of event-related potentials. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8(213), 1-14. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00213
Luyten, L., Vansteenwegen, D., van Kuyck, K., Deckers, D., & Nuttin, B. (2011). Optimization of a contextual conditioning protocol for rats using combined measurements of startle amplitude and freezing: The effects of shock intensity and different types of conditioning. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 194(2), 305-311. doi: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2010.11.005
Morris, R. W., & Bouton, M. E. (2006). Effect of unconditioned stimulus magnitude on the emergence of conditioned responding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 32(4), 371-385. doi: 10.1037/0097-7403.32.4.371
Norrholm, S. D., Jovanovic, T., Briscione, M. A., Anderson, K. M., Kwon, C. K., Warren, V. T., … Bradley, B. (2014). Generalization of fear-potentiated startle in the presence of auditory cues: a parametric analysis. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8(361), 1-10. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00361
Reinhard, G., Lachnit, H., & König, S., (2006). Tracking stimulus processing in Pavlovian pupillary conditioning. Psychophysiology, 43(1), 73–83. doi: 10.1111/j. 1469-8986.2006.00374.x.
Santos, J. M., Gárgaro, A. C., Oliveira, A. R., Masson, S., & Brandão, M. L. (2005). Pharmacological dissociation of moderate and high contextual fear as assessed by freezing behavior and fear-potentiated startle. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 15(2), 239-246. doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2004.10.004
Smith, J. C., Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (2005). State anxiety and affective physiology: Effects of sustained exposure to affective pictures. Biological Psychology, 69(3), 247-260. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.09.001
The Math Works Inc. (2020). MATLAB (Version 2020a) [Computer software]. https://www.mathworks.com /
Torrents‐Rodas, D., Fullana, M. A., Bonillo, A., Andión, O., Molinuevo, B., Caseras, X., … Torrubia, R. (2014). Testing the temporal stability of individual differences in the acquisition and generalization of fear. Psychophysiology, 51(7), 697-705. doi: 10.1111/psyp.12213
Walker, D. L., Toufexis, D. J., & Davis, M. (2003). Role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis vs the amygdala in fear, stress, and anxiety. European Journal of Pharmacology, 463(1-3), 199–216. doi: 10.1016/s0014-2999(03)01282-2.
Witnauer, J. E., & Miller, R. R. (2013). Conditioned suppression is an inverted-U function of footshock intensity. Learning & Behavior, 41(1), 94-106. doi: 10.3758/s13420-012-0088-0.