TradiTional ecological Knowledge in Sierra de andía  
(
navarre, SPain), and iTS aPPlicabiliTy for naTure  
conServaTion  
conocimienTo ecológico Tradicional en la Sierra de andía  
(
navarra, eSPaña) y Su aPlicabilidad Para la conServación de la  
naTuraleza  
1,2  
& Manuel Pardo-de-Santayana *  
Luis Gorriz  
Summary  
Background and aims: In the current context of global biodiversity loss, consensus  
is growing about the importance of incorporating Traditional Ecological Knowledge  
in nature conservation. However, efforts with this concern have mainly focused on  
indigenous cultures. In this scenario we chose Sierra de Andía, a Spanish Red  
Natura Site with ancient grazelands where pastoral management shifts could be  
leading into a conservation issue. In this context, this study aims to contribute  
to the valorisation and applicability of traditional ecological knowledge from an  
industrialized country, by using it to identify problematics and propose management  
solutions for the site.  
1
.
Departamento de Biología  
(
Botánica), Universidad Autónoma  
de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.  
Centro de Investigación en  
Biodiversidad y Cambio Global  
C I B C - UA M ) , U n i v e rs i d a d  
2
.
(
Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid,  
Spain.  
M&M: In order to discover traditional knowledge that could be beneficial for  
conservation management of Sierra de Andía, we interviewed informants about  
Chamaemelum nobile (a popular medicinal plant closely dependant on grazing  
pastures) and conducted a pilot vegetation survey about the species.  
Results: Informants showed deep knowledge about the plant and provided ecological  
indicators to locate best populations and understand its recent evolution. While  
there are multiple coincidences between traditional and scientific knowledge, new  
information only mentioned by interviewees also arose. For instance, rain scarcity at  
the end of the summer was considered as a probable threat for C. nobile blooming.  
Conclusions: This study suggests that local ecological knowledge is accurate,  
contrastable, and can be applied for a more sustainable management of grazing  
pastures of Sierra de Andía.  
*
Citar este artículo  
& M. Pardo-de-  
SAꢀꢁAꢂAꢀA. 2021. ꢁraditional  
ecological knowledge in Sierra  
de Andía (ꢀavarre, Spain),  
and its applicability for nature  
cꢀnsꢁꢂvꢃꢄꢀn. Bol. Soc. Argent. Bot.  
Gorriz, L.  
56: 93-111.  
Key wordS  
Chamaemelum nobile, sustainable comanagement, traditional ecological knowledge.  
reSumen  
Introducción y objetivos: En un contexto de crisis de biodiversidad global, existe  
un consenso científico y político creciente acerca de la importancia de incorporar  
el Conocimiento Ecológico Tradicional para la conservación de la naturaleza. Sin  
embargo, dichosesfuerzossehancentradoenculturasindígenas. Enesteescenario  
elegimos la Sierra de Andía, un espacio de la Red Natura en España caracterizado  
por sus antiguos pastos ganaderos, cuyos cambios de gestión recientes podrían  
conllevar problemáticas para su conservación. En este escenario, el estudio busca  
contribuir a la valorización y la aplicabilidad del conocimiento ecológico tradicional  
de un país industrializado, utilizándolo para localizar problemáticas y proponer  
soluciones de manejo en un área concreta.  
M&M: Con el fin de descubrir el conocimiento tradicional que pudiera ser beneficioso  
para el manejo y conservación de la Sierra de Andía, se realizaron entrevistas  
acerca de Chamaemelum nobile (una popular planta medicinal ligada a estos  
pastos ganaderos) y se llevó a cabo un estudio de campo sobre la especie.  
Resultados: Los informantes mostraron un profundo conocimiento sobre la planta,  
y proveyeron indicadores ecológicos con los que localizar las poblaciones más  
abundantes y comprender su evolución reciente. A la vez que encontramos  
numerosas coincidencias entre el conocimiento ecológico tradicional y el científico,  
también surgió información exclusiva de los informantes.  
Recibido: 28 Feb 2021  
Conclusiones: Este estudio sugiere que el conocimiento ecológico tradicional  
aportado es preciso, contrastable, y puede ser utilizado para un manejo sostenible  
de los pastos en la Sierra de Andía.  
Aceptado: 22 Mar 2021  
Publicado impreso: 31 Mar 2021  
eꢅꢆtꢀꢂꢃ: Nꢀꢂmꢃ Hꢆlgꢁꢂt  
PalabraS clave  
Chamaemelum nobile, conocimiento ecológico tradicional, cogestión sostenible.  
ISSꢀ versión impresa 0373-580X  
ISSꢀ versión on-line 1851-2372  
93  
Bol. Soc. Argent. Bot. 56 (1) 2021  
inTroducTion  
(Moller et al., 2004). Unfortunately, TEK use in  
conservation has mainly been focused on indigenous  
During the last decades, human impact on the communities of developing countries such as in Latin  
planet has quickly increased, leading to a quick America, leading to a lack of studies in rural areas  
disappearing of species that is being considered of more industrialized countries, where some locals  
the sixth big extinction event of the earth (Pimm still preserve this wisdom (Hernández-Morcillo et  
&
Raven, 2000; Thomas et al., 2004; IPBES, al., 2014; Aswani et al., 2018). This phenomena  
2018). Due to this biodiversity crisis, conservation happens in Spain, where despite the tradition in  
efforts and sustainable management are becoming ethnobotanical research (Bonet, 1994; Morales et  
increasingly urgent, especially in those hotspots al., 2011), only few studies have tried to empirically  
where living organisms are particularly threatened link TEK with nature conservation (Reyes-García,  
and diverse (Reid, 1998; Myers et al., 2000). In 2009; Benítez et al., 2010), leading to a requirement  
this context, a growing consensus exists about of studies that provide evidence of the relevance of  
the relevance of including traditional ecological ethnobotanical knowledge for a more sustainable  
knowledge (TEK) as a source of information for nature management. In this context we find Sierra de  
nature management and decision making (United Andía, a Spanish Red Natura site characterized by  
Nations, 1992; Gadgil et al., 1993; Drew & Henne, its ancient grazelands which, regarding nearby local  
2006; Shackeroff & Campbell, 2007; Guadilla-Sáez people, are suffering quick management shifts that  
et al., 2019). could pose a conservation issue. With this regard,  
The term “TEK”, has been traditionally defined as there is a need to assess these problematics and  
“a cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief, propose management solutions for the area based on  
evolving from adaptive processes and handed down locals TEK, and therefore giving evidence about its  
through generations by cultural transmission, about value in nature conservation plans. To do so, it could  
the relationship of living beings (including humans) be especially convenient to use well known wild  
with one another and with their environment” (Berkes species by informants, as some could act as ecological  
et al., 2000). However, more recent definitions regard indicators of their habitats. Despite the deep erosion  
TEK not only as an accumulation of knowledge, but of TEK (Ramirez, 2007), there are still some species  
as a dynamic body that both allows adaptation and such as Roman chamomile [Chamaemelum nobile  
cocreates new realities on socio-ecological systems (L.) All. Anthemis nobilis L.] which locals still gather  
(Gómez-Baggethun & Reyes-García, 2013). Several and know (Pardo-de-Santayana & Morales, 2010;  
studies have shown that TEK can give useful and Blanco-Salas et al., 2018).  
complementary information to scientists, as well  
Chamaemelum nobile is ordinarily called  
as acting as a way of engaging communities in manzanilla amarga, manzanilla fina or manzanilla  
conservation efforts, improving co-governance and de monte in Spain (Pardo-de-Santayana & Morales,  
reinforcing resilience of socio-ecological systems 2010). It is an herbaceous plant with a perennial  
(
2
&
Drew, 2005; Houde, 2007; Ruiz-Mallén & Corbera, rhizome and alternate tri-pinnatisect leaves, that  
013; Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2014; Ludwig generally creeps on the ground depending on cattle  
Macnaghten, 2020). This collaborative decision pressure over the pasture. By the end of the summer  
making and complementary knowledge approach (from late July to September), C. nobile produces  
Scientific + TEK), has been performed in several solitary erect stalks with flower heads composed  
(
studies around the world (Newmaster et al., 2011; of outer white ray-florets and yellow inner florets,  
Gadamus et al., 2015; Tomasini & Theilade, 2019). which remind to daisy inflorescences (Al-Snafi,  
In the case of plants, Tomasini & Theilade (2019) 2016) (Fig. 1). Chamaemelum nobile mainly grows  
performed a study in Prespa National Park (Albania), in western Europe (Spain, Portugal, UK, France  
where locals granted useful local ecological indicators and Ireland) and Northern Africa (Morocco and  
for a better management of the site. These and other Algeria), inhabiting seasonally wet grasslands,  
studies demonstrate the utility of collecting TEK in where the presence of cattle inhibits competition  
conservation projects, as an essential tool for a better from other plant species (Blanco-Salas et. al., 2018;  
management and protection of natural areas, as it can Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland, 2021).  
be a cheap, broad, long time and inclusive method Roman chamomile is widely used in its distribution  
94  
L. Gorriz and M. Pardo-de-Santayana - TEK in Sierra de Andía for conservation  
Fig. 1. Chamaemelum nobile.  
areas, being even grown and sold commercially selected C. nobile as a source of TEK in order  
in many countries (e.g, Germany, France, Egypt to promote effective and inclusive sustainable  
or Argentina). It is usually consumed as an herbal management measures in Sierra de Andía, a Red  
tea for dyspepsia, nausea or menstrual disorders, Natura mountain tableland with extent grazelands  
and its infusion is used to clean wounds, infected located in Northern Spain (Navarre) (MITECO,  
eyes or against earache (EMA, 2011). Moreover, 2015), where quick socio-economical changes  
the plant has been proved to be a promising herbal and management shifts could be leading to a  
drug due to its safety and effectiveness over several conservation issue.  
body processes (Al-Snafi, 2016), which explains  
To achieve this goal, here we present the following  
its current and past popularity (Blanco-Salas et. al., specific objectives:  
2
018).  
1. Compiling traditional ecological knowledge  
about C. nobile (ecology, habitat, population  
shifts, threats, sustainable gathering techniques,  
etc.).  
In Spain, especially in northern regions such  
as Navarre, many people enjoy its characteristic  
bitter flavour, which they claim to prefer over the  
chamomiles available in supermarkets, bars and 2. Comparing TEK conclusions with field vegetation  
restaurants (Matricaria chamomilla L.), so wild observations and bibliography.  
gathering of the plant is still preserved (Pardo-de- 3. Merging both TEK and scientific knowledge and  
Santayana & Morales, 2010). Unfortunately, deep  
changes in agropastoral systems in several countries  
of Europe have led to less intensive grazing, pasture  
loss, and according to local people to a decline in  
developing proposals for a better management of  
C. nobile and its habitat, and therefore highlighting  
TEK’s utility.  
We hypothesize that there is coincidence  
C. nobile populations. This phenomena has been between both types of wisdom since both are based  
mentioned in Spain (Barandiarán et al., 1990), and on experimental knowledge and deep observation.  
is particular remarkable in other European territories Besides, as TEK is based on locally social and  
such as UK, where grazeland abandonment has environmental conditions, we also hypothesize that  
markedly diminished C. nobile abundance (Botanical it is essential for designing long term successful  
Society of Britain and Ireland, 2021).  
management, since scientific knowledge may be  
Given its popularity among locals in northern based in generalizations that are not adapted for  
Spain, and its tight link with grazing pastures, we specific sites.  
95  
Bol. Soc. Argent. Bot. 56 (1) 2021  
maTerialS and meThodS  
Population in Valle de Ollo is scattered in nine small  
villages. It has quickly declined in the last 150 years,  
going from 1186 inhabitants in 1857 to a minimum  
Description of the site  
The present study was performed in Sierra of 316 in the year 1991, due to deep social changes  
de Andía, a mountain tableland located in the and countryside abandonment. After that, neo-rural  
centre-west of Navarre (northern Spain) (Fig. 2), population has arrived, incrementing the population  
where local people have traditionally gathered C. to 421 inhabitants by 2019 (Instituto de Estadística  
nobile. We interviewed inhabitants from the nearby de Navarra, 1991; Instituto Nacional de Estadística,  
municipality of Valle de Ollo, at 504 masl and 2020).  
located 22 km west from the capital of the region  
ThisareaisinthetransitionoftheMediterraneanand  
(Pamplona). Traditionally, the main activity of the Eurosiberian biogeographic zones, with precipitations  
site has been shepherding, complemented with of about 1100 mm/year, and mean temperatures of 11º  
dry land crops growing, such as barley, wheat, C. Quercus rotundifolia Lam. forests grow in the sunny  
and oats. In 1984, something more than half of the and driest lowlands, whereas Quercus pubescens  
population (54%), was dedicated to stockbreeding Willd. dominate deeper and humid locations. As we go  
(
Gran Enciclopedia de Navarra, 1990). However, up (700 ~ 1100 m), beech forests of Fagus sylvatica  
nowadays jobs in the secondary and tertiary sectors L. appear, and they are finally replaced by the high  
production, tourism) predominate. According grazing pastures of Sierra de Andía on the top of  
(
to Instituto de Estadística de Navarra (2021), the tableland (Gran Enciclopedia de Navarra, 1990;  
predominant jobs are from service sector (108), WFO, 2021). In these grasslands, over 12 different  
followed by industry (30), agriculture (16) and pastures types have been identified, five of them cited  
construction (10).  
as “community interest habitats” (Berasategui et al.,  
Fig. 2. Sierra de Andía; location and appearance.  
96  
L. Gorriz and M. Pardo-de-Santayana - TEK in Sierra de Andía for conservation  
2011; MITECO, 2015). Within these pastures, we with informants; (2) a pilot vegetation sampling survey  
can find sandstone-substrate sites where abundant of the plant in the grazelands of Sierra de Andía;  
seasonal precipitation washes the nutrients from the and (3) a complementary bibliographic review. The  
soil, leading to certain acidification. It is here were the later was used both to complement the field study,  
therophitic-acidophilous community of Helianthemion and to gather information about current management  
guttati Braun Blanq. 1940 develops (Pérez-Prieto practices in Sierra de Andía, so as to compare it with  
&
Font, 2005), and where C. nobile, is often found the appreciations of the informants and make a final  
(López-Fernández, 1970). According to the Spanish management proposal for C. nobile and its habitat.  
habitat directives, the plant is also associated with  
diverse Nardus spp. grasslands over siliceous substrate a) TEK (semi-structured interviews)  
(Code: 6230) (MITECO, 2020). All of these pastures  
Traditional ecological knowledge about C.  
and adjoining forests, which had been utilised by nobile was collected from July to August 2019,  
transhumant and local shepherds since centuries ago by interviewing locals that were recommended by  
(Fig. 3A) (Garayo-Urruela et al., 1996), also preserve inhabitants in the area as they were people with  
a great importance due to its biodiversity, containing deep experiential knowledge about the plant. After  
species of interest such as the grey partridge (Perdix contacting the first key informants, we used the  
perdix L., 1758), the bearded vulture (Gypaetus “Snowball Method” (Handcock & Gile, 2011) in order  
barbatus L., 1758), and the alpine newt (Ichtyosaura to recruit the rest of the interviewees. We only selected  
alpestris Lau., 1768), which inhabits grazing ponds inhabitants that still gathered the plant yearly or have  
created by shepherds (Gobierno de Navarra, 2010) collected it frequently during their lives, and therefore  
(Fig. 3B). All these natural and cultural values, as well preserved TEK. In order to define sample size, we  
as other ecosystem services have put Sierra de Andía used the law of diminishing returns; i.e., once new  
and the adjoining Sierra de Urbasa in the focus of information was not appearing and it was confirmed by  
conservation plans, leading to the creation of Sierra de several interviews, we stopped adding new participants  
Urbasa yAndía Natural Park in 1997 with the resulting (Martin, 2004). Moreover, we noted that new contacts  
management plans (Boletín Oficial de Navarra, 1996, recommended by last informants had already been  
2001; Boletín Oficial del Estado, 1997).  
interviewed.  
We performed a total of 10 consented interviews,  
with a mean age of 80 years, from locals that had lived  
Data collection  
In order to reach our goals, we merged data tightly linked to surrounding natural resources. Besides  
from three different sources: (1) semi-structured interviews next to informants’ homes, four field trips  
ethnobotanical interviews about C. nobile, were we to collection sites with participants were conducted  
collected TEK in the villages and during field trips (Martin, 2004). Most participants (80%) had herded  
Fig. 3. Sierra de Andía. A: Ancient shepherd’s cabins. B: Artificial grazing ponds, where Ichthyosaura  
alpestris inhabits.  
97  
Bol. Soc. Argent. Bot. 56 (1) 2021  
cattle in their youth and infancy across Sierra deAndía, mentioned during the interviews, making observations  
and preserved deep understanding of grazelands. The about the abundance and location of the plant.  
reason why no women were interviewed during this Following informant’s advice, we also measured  
study is that, even though they knew the applications weight (g) and height (cm from floor to the base of the  
and uses of the plant, there were men who recollected receptacle) from two groups of 50 inflorescences; one  
and spent more time in the habitat of C. nobile while from inside a pond’s fence (non-accessible to cattle),  
herding the cattle, and therefore had developed deeper and other from outside (accessible to cattle). We  
ecological knowledge.  
Firstly, we asked the interviewees broad questions ecological details of C. nobile as we visited the sites.  
about Sierra deAndía pastures, so as to encourage them After coming by main recollection spots in Sierra  
also observed and recorded visible threats and other  
to share those topics that they considered of interest. de Andía, we chose a popular harvesting site (60%  
This helped us to have into account local’s perspective mentioned it) with elevated soil humidity and sunken  
and better design or create some of the questions of the terrain, which had a high abundance of inflorescences.  
subsequent interview.After this, informants were asked In this area we placed three different plots, each of  
about the local names of C. nobile, its morphological them representative of a combination of traditional  
characteristics, how it was recognised, its blooming indicators used by informants (orography, grass  
period, recollection technique, preparation and use, colour, bush presence and erosion) (Table 1; Table 2).  
gathering sites and their abundance, population trends, Each plot was 7 x 20 m, as these measures were the  
threats for the plant and finally, we encouraged them ones that best fitted with terrain and local indicators.  
to propose management measures for C. nobile and To demarcate them, we used four stakes joined by  
its habitat. In addition to this, we paid special attention cords (Fig. 4A). In each plot, traditional indicators  
to all ecological indicators used by informants during predicted a negative or positive impact over C. nobile  
the interviews, as they were the basis to perform the abundance. To assess traditional indicators accuracy,  
following vegetation survey.  
we measured C. nobile coverture inside each plot.  
Other variables such as the number of blooms per  
area, the number of individuals and the number  
b) Scientific measurements (vegetation survey)  
In order to compare local ecological indicators of of cut flowers were also quantified. Once the plot  
informants, and to assess if they were contrastable was delimited, we measured the variables inside by  
and complimentary with scientific measurements, performing eleven equidistant transects, each 10 cm  
we performed a preliminary field vegetation study wide (Fig. 4B). The number of transects per plot  
in one of the most common recollection sites during was chosen using the “Promedio corrido” method,  
the flowering season of the plant (August-September a representative number for measuring coverage  
2
020). First, we visited the recollection spots (Mostacedo & Fredericksen, 2000).  
Fig. 4. Vegetation survey with plots. A: plot’s dimensions, adjusted to terrain indicators. B: Sampling  
coverture with equidistant transects.  
98  
L. Gorriz and M. Pardo-de-Santayana - TEK in Sierra de Andía for conservation  
Table 1. Ecological indicators used by informants, in order to predict flowering abundance of C. nobile.  
Indicator  
Predicted impacts on flowering  
Several days of abundant rains during the Abundant blooming, 4 to 10 days after rainfall.  
second half of august  
Rain  
Little rain during the second half of august  
Scarce blooming  
Days between Virgen de Agosto (15/8) and Potential blooming  
Virgen de Septiembre (15/9)  
Festivities  
Other dates  
Rare blooming  
Depressed zones of terrain (Hoyadas) and flat Enhances flowering abundance  
areas  
Terrain topography  
Sloping terrain  
Perjudicial for flowering abundance  
Enhances flowering abundance  
Perjudicial for flowering abundance  
Enhances flowering abundance  
Perjudicial for flowering abundance  
Enhances flowering abundance  
Perjudicial for flowering abundance  
Enhances flowering abundance  
Dark green  
Grass colour  
Soil erosion  
Soil depth  
Light green, or not green  
Low  
High  
Deep soils, rich in organic matter  
Short rocky soils  
Bush absence  
Bush growth  
Bush presence  
Yes  
Perjudicial for flowering abundance  
Enhances flowering abundance  
Perjudicial for flowering abundance  
Nearby ponds  
No (Far away)  
Table 2. Indicators present in each plot of the vegetation survey.  
Plot  
1
2
3
x
x
x
Terrain topography: Flat  
Grass colour: Dark green  
Bush growth: Absence  
Soil erosion: Low  
x
x
x
x
Enhances flowering  
x
x
x
x
Indicator  
Terrein topography: Slope  
Grass colour: Light green, or yellowish  
Bush growth: Presence  
Soil erosion: High  
Perjudicial to flowering  
x
In order to complement the field study, we reviewed c) Knowledge resemblance and integrated proposals  
literature about C. nobile and its habitat, looking to After compiling informants TEK and performing  
find differences or similitudes between informant’s the vegetation survey, we reviewed pre-existing  
knowledge and scientific results. Main key words used literature regarding C. nobile ecology, threats, and  
in this search were “Chamaemelum nobile”, “Anthemis management (pasture management) (Boletín Oficial  
nobilis” and “Ecology”, and main browser applied was de Navarra, 1996, 2001; Boletín Oficial del Estado,  
Google Scholar.  
1997; Sección de Gestión Forestal, 2009, 2011, 2017).  
99  
Bol. Soc. Argent. Bot. 56 (1) 2021  
Main key words used were: Chamaemelum nobile amount is needed to prepare the infusion.  
&
Ecology / Pasture ecology / Management pastures  
shepherding. With this, we performed a comparison  
Flowering: To delimit the blooming period of the  
between traditional wisdom (from informants) and plant, informants made use of festivities (80%); “it  
th  
scientific knowledge (from literature and the field flowers between August Virgin (15 ) and September  
th  
survey), allowing us to assess knowledge resemblance Virgin (15 )”. Moreover, some of them (30%)  
between both.  
mentioned that the plant’s abundance is tightly linked  
After the aforementioned, last part of the study to precipitation during this period. They specified that  
aimed to reach some final conclusions for a better “if it doesn´t rain enough during those days, the plant  
sustainable management of C. nobile and its pastoral will not flower until the next year”. If it rains enough,  
ecosystem, by merging all scientific and traditional though, “it flowers all over”. In the year of the present  
knowledge. Final management proposals can be study, interviewees predicted a low flowering due to  
checked at the end of discussion.  
the scarce rains at the end of the summer.  
Population location and abundance: Informants  
agreed that most abundant C. nobile populations were  
located in the grazing pastures of Sierra de Andía,  
concretely in the proximity of the artificial ponds made  
reSulTS  
TEK; semi-structured interviews  
Local names: Informants referred to C. nobile by shepherds, where terrain is depressed and moisture  
with two different names: manzanilla fina (delicate levels are higher.  
chamomile) and manzanilla de los altos (mountain  
chamomile). It is interesting to note that the term fina  
Traditional ecological indicators: During  
was used as an appreciative epithet, meaning that the interviews, informants alluded to different local  
plant was better and stronger in chemical compounds indicators about the ecology of the plant to locate and  
than Anthemis arvensis L., a morphologically similar predict its flowering and abundance. Most popular  
and well-known medicinal plant in the area which indicators were rain (100%) and field topography  
informantscalledwiththepejorativeepithetmanzanilla (50%) (Table 1).  
basta (coarse chamomile).  
Population changes and threats: Even though  
Gathering, preparation and applications: interviewees were aware of a variety of short-period  
Informants explained that, to gather the plant, it is only threats for C. nobile, there was not a clear consensus  
necessary to take the inflorescences without damaging about how the whole plant populations in Sierra de  
the vegetative part, therefore facilitating following Andía had evolved in the long-term period of 50 years.  
year blooming. To prepare the plant, inflorescences are Some informants said that populations might have  
dehydrated during several days on paper or absorbent decreased due to quick changes in cattle management  
surface, in a close and dry place. Once dried, it is (40%), whereas others mentioned that they hadn’t  
possible to store them in a hermetic pot during long perceived any appreciable changes (30%). One of  
periods of time until they are used. To do so, infusion them even claimed that “nowadays the plant is more  
was the only preparation method mentioned (100%), abundant because recollection has decreased”. The  
while some people added a splash of anise liqueur for rest of informants didn’t know what to answer to this  
improving its flavour (30%). Once prepared, it has question (20%). However, a considerable number of  
a variety of applications; it is used as analgesic for them assured that, independently to C. nobile’s trends,  
stomachandheadpain(100%), favoursbodyrelaxation quick management changes in the pastures of Sierra  
(40%), helps releasing stomachal air in calves when de Andía and Valle de Ollo had happened in the last  
they overgraze (20%) and reduces local inflammation decades (40%). Moreover, informants were aware  
in wounds when applied as poultice (10%). Informants about a variety of threats that could negatively impact  
highlighted that only a few inflorescences per glass the plant. These were usually mentioned regarding  
are needed. They explained that, when compared to specific sites, such as two recollection spots inside  
A. arvensis, C. nobile contains higher concentration Valle de Ollo were C. nobile was next to disappear  
of active compounds in the inflorescences, so a lower (30%). Six main threats mentioned were: rain scarcity,  
100  
L. Gorriz and M. Pardo-de-Santayana - TEK in Sierra de Andía for conservation  
grazing abandonment, soil erosion, cattle increase,  
over-recollection and pasture overgrazing (Fig. 5).  
(30%). Moreover, they highlighted that wet soils  
are particularly vulnerable to this process (30%),  
especially in the proximity of cattle ponds, depressed  
terrains and during rainy months of the year.  
a) Rain scarcity: Most informants (70%), mentioned  
precipitation shortage during flowering period d) Bigger cattle increase: Some informants said that  
as one of the main factors affecting flowering  
abundance yearly. Even though they couldn’t  
confirm any long-term effect over the plant’s  
populations, they were sure it was the main driving  
factor affecting annual blooming of the plant. Some  
other quotes related to rainfall patterns of the area in  
the long term were “Pastures didn’t dry that much  
some decades ago, and they used to remain greenish  
even at the end of the summer”, or “nowadays,  
climate changes quicker and more abruptly”.  
cattle type in Sierra de Andía had been altered in the  
last decades; from big herds of minor cattle (mainly  
sheep), towards predominance of bigger cattle  
(horses and cows). They explained that both horses  
and cows, which are heavier, generate a higher  
impact over the field by trampling and mowing.  
Additionally, they highlighted that there has been a  
progressive loss in the caring of cattle, which could  
induce changes in the pasture ecosystem (40%).  
e) Over-recollection: Even though interviewees agreed  
that gathering pressure has declined over the  
last decades, two of them (20%) mentioned that  
overexploitation may occur in those sites that are  
particularly popular.  
b) Grazing abandonment: Other threat that was  
cited several times by informants was shrub and  
grass overgrowth due to cattle cease and pasture  
abandonment (40%). In fact, a specific area was  
cited by one of the informants were pasture (and f) Temporal over-grazing: According to some, (20%),  
therefore C. nobile) had almost disappeared due to  
loss of ovine shepherding.  
c) Soil degradation: Some of the interviewees  
mentioned that excessive trampling over the soil  
can disrupt the terrain leading to decline of C. nobile  
grazing period length in Sierra de Andía pastures  
has increased over the last decades. Traditionally,  
shepherds would take their cattle back to the  
villages by 25 of July. However, nowadays cattle  
spends much more time in the high pastures due  
th  
Fig. 5. Threats for C. nobile, according to informants.  
101  
Bol. Soc. Argent. Bot. 56 (1) 2021  
to socio-economical changes and better climatic d) Avoiding cattle over wet soils: Informants proposed  
conditions.  
two ways of protecting wet soils from cattle  
trampling; on the one hand by fencing artificial  
ponds, so cattle could not reach their shores and  
disrupt the soil (20%). On the other hand, by  
removing cattle from valuable soils during the rainy  
months of autumn and spring (20%).  
Management proposals: When asked about  
possible management actions that could benefit C.  
nobile and the pasture ecosystem, unexpectedly,  
interviewees didn’t mention harvesting control as an  
important measurement to avoid overexploitation, as  
they considered other factors like precipitations to Scientific measurements: vegetation survey  
have much stronger effect in population abundance. After visiting popular recollection sites along Sierra  
Finally, they pointed out several proposals related to de Andía during the flowering period of C. nobile, we  
cattle management:  
appreciated a low inflorescence abundance of the plant,  
comparing to previous descriptions of informants  
a) Favouring sheep and goat livestock: Interviewees about abundant years. According to interviewees,  
repeated several times the significance of limiting favourable years are distinguished by conspicuous  
beef cattle and equines and promoting sheep blooming of the plant all over propitious locations.  
and goats, and therefore maintaining traditional Flowering abundance during these years was described  
livestock proportions (50%). Bigger cattle was as “it blooms all around” or “everything becomes  
described as highly erosive and more difficult white with flowers”. Although being a qualitative  
to control, something that favours pasture comparison, observations during this study at main  
abandonment and overexploitation of desirable recollections spots through flowering period, showed  
locations.  
that blooming abundance was much lower than  
b) Avoid grazing abandonment and shrub growth: compared to “abundant years”. This was confirmed  
Informants mentioned the importance of by informants by previous predictions; “it might not  
maintaining the pasture thanks to cattle presence bloom a lot this year, because it has not rain enough”,  
(
20%). In addition to this, they pointed out as well as direct appreciations by two of them in the  
the relevance of shepherds, who favour cattle field. Only in sunken areas or in the proximity of  
movement and avoid free livestock concentration cattle ponds we could observe higher inflorescence  
among most appealing sites.  
c) Limiting grazing duration: Informants mentioned  
abundance.  
After making these general observations, height  
that removing cattle from the high pastures of and weight of two groups of 60 inflorescences were  
Sierra deAndía before the end of the summer could measured, one from inside and other from outside a  
have benefits for the plant and its habitat, as it pond’s fence. Average height was five times higher  
enhances grazeland regeneration with late-summer inside than outside (Inside; 8.16 cm, outside; 1.54  
rainfall (20%).  
cm), and average weight was 1.4 times greater (Inside;  
Fig. 6. C. nobile weight and height comparison from inside and outside a pond’s fence.  
102  
L. Gorriz and M. Pardo-de-Santayana - TEK in Sierra de Andía for conservation  
Table 3. Knowledge resemblance with two different approaches; traditional (TEK), and scientific.  
Abreviations = ~: broad coincidence; : coincidence; x: disagreement; −: no information.  
Approach  
Knowledge  
SCIENTIFIC  
ARTICLE REVIEW  
TEK  
FIELD STUDY  
~
Flowering from 15th august  
to 15th september  
(
Pardo de Santayana & Morales,  
2
010; Al-Snafi, 2016)  
Blooming is tightly linked to  
summer-end rainfall  
Habitat: grazing pastures  
(López-Fernández, 1970;  
Blanco-Salas et al., 2018)  
Habitat: proximity of artificial  
ponds and humid soils  
(Blanco-Salas et al., 2018)  
Habitat: Depressed zones of terrain  
Ecology  
(
Blanco-Salas et al., 2018)  
Habitat: linked to “dark green pasture”  
Habitat: Deep soils, rich in organic matter  
Better growth with lower  
grazing pressure (fences)  
-
(Stroh, 2015)  
Linked to winter wet soils  
(
López-Fernández, 1970; Stroh, 2015)  
Grows in slightly acidic soils  
Lopez-Fernández, 1970)  
-
(
Grows within a therophitic community  
-
-
(López-Fernández, 1970)  
~
Trampling in wet soils  
(
Marlow & Pogacnick, 1985)  
Grazing abandonment (shrub growth)  
(
Stroh, 2015; Blanco-Salas et al., 2018)  
Rain scarcity (at the end of the summer)  
Senior cattle increase  
Excesive grazing and trampling pressure  
Over-recollection  
(
Stroh, 2015)  
(
Pardo de Santayana et al., 2018)  
Threats  
~
Excesive length of grazing period  
(
Aguirre - Pérez de Eulate, 2011)  
Negatively affected by artificial fertilizers  
(
Stroh, 2015)  
Temperature changes  
Artificial drainage of the soil  
Stroh, 2015; Blanco-Salas et al., 2018)  
(
Use of broad-spectrum pesticides  
(Stroh, 2015)  
Habitat poughing  
(Stroh, 2015)  
Avoiding grazing abandonment  
Favouring minor cattle  
Limiting grazing period duration  
Avoiding cattle over wet soils  
(
Stroh, 2015; Blanco-Salas et al., 2018)  
~
Management  
proposals  
(Molnár et al., 2020)  
~
Aguirre - Pérez de Eulate, 2011)  
(
Stroh, 2015)  
103  
Bol. Soc. Argent. Bot. 56 (1) 2021  
0.078 g, outside; 0.056 g) (Fig. 6). T student test for scientific information (field survey and literature  
two samples showed significance difference between review) (Table 3), shows how multiple coincidence  
them (α/2 = 0,005, lib. value= 98), both for weight arises between them. In addition to this, both ways of  
and height. Moreover, informants were aware about knowledge seem to complement each other in certain  
these differences as they suggested recollection inside topics, even if approaching the same ecosystem in  
pond’s fences, due to bigger growth of C. nobile a very different manner. For instance, specific and  
thanks to lower cattle pressure.  
accurate data requires particular methodologies only  
By quantifying coverage by transects, we could available from a scientific approach. However, broader  
appreciate that plot 1, which had the most favourable topics like long term changes in the ecosystem, local  
traditional indicators, had the highest C. nobile observations, and an integrated vision of the area  
coverage (34.58%), whereas plots 2 and 3, which had is often easier to obtain from those who inhabit the  
one or more negative indicators, showed much lower territory. This aspect has already been mentioned  
values (2.24% and 4% respectively).  
by several authors and is one of the arguments that  
supports the use of traditional knowledge for a  
Knowledge resemblance and integrated management better management of natural resources (Baker &  
proposals  
After comparing both informants’ management  
Community Mutitjulu, 1992).  
Apart from these broad arguments, merging both  
proposals with field survey and the literature (Table traditional and scientific knowledge has provided, for  
), we found multiple coincidence between them. this pilot study, with the following advantages:  
3
Many ecological facts about the plant, such as its link  
with seasonally wet soils, its dependence on grazing  
Orientation and specification: On the one hand  
pastures and its susceptibility to excessive trampling informants’ indications allowed us to quickly focus on  
appeared both in the interviews and the literature. Other the most relevant information and therefore orientating  
topics however, were only found in scientific sources our research. This pilot study suggests that thanks to  
or only mentioned by locals. Integrated management well experienced informants, it is possible to nimbly  
proposals that resulted from common ideas found find most relevant topics when addressing a local  
both in literature and informants’ knowledge were conservation plan, without performing a long and  
supported with observations made on the field. These exhausting previous research. Once main topics are  
final management suggestions are shown later in the identified, scientific methods could be undertaken in  
Discussion in the section Proposals for sustainable order to obtain more accurate conclusions. For this  
management.  
pilot study, this aspect has been noticed when studying  
the threats of the plant. As it is shown in Table 3,  
a bunch of threats for C. nobile is regarded in the  
literature. However, informants only mentioned some  
of them during the interviews, which enabled us to  
get rid of trivial information. Subsequent field survey  
diScuSSion  
Knowledge Co-production  
Traditionalecologicalknowledgeisoftenqualitative suggests that other literature threats not mentioned  
and has a very different way of understanding things by locals, like broad spectrum pesticides, artificial  
when compared to science, especially in those non- draining and habitat ploughing, are actually not  
industrialized countries where indigenous and citizens relevant for this specific area. Moreover, informants  
cosmologies remain remarkably different. This aspect were able to give specific information about broader  
has made it difficult to harmonize both TEK and topics cited in the literature, allowing us to adapt  
science together in order to achieve better research scientific recommendations to the specificities of the  
and nature management plans (Drew & Henne, area. Cattle trampling over wet soils, for example,  
2006). However, this pilot study suggests that for this is a well-known matter in the scientific literature  
particular case, TEK could be of big relevance when (Marlow & Pogacnik, 1985) that has been mostly  
obtaining information about a species of interest and its related to riverbank destruction. In this study, however,  
habitat, as well as suggesting interesting management informants mentioned it by referring it to cattle  
measures.  
presence over wet soils during the rainy months of the  
Contrasting both traditional knowledge and year.  
104  
L. Gorriz and M. Pardo-de-Santayana - TEK in Sierra de Andía for conservation  
New ideas: On the other hand, and probably most traditional ecological indicators are correlated with  
important, informants have acted as a source of new plant’s abundance, something also mentioned by  
knowledge that was not found in the literature. This Tomasini & Theilade (2019). Finally, a list of threats  
is the case of rain scarcity at the end of the summer, for C. nobile was obtained after the interviews. Some  
as a probable threat for C. nobile blooming on the of them like pasture abandonment and excessive  
site. Climate change predictions in Spain (Vargas- trampling coincide with scientific literature and the  
Amelin & Pindado, 2014) as well as its effect on field survey (Table 3), and others like rain scarcity at  
top-mountainous systems (Pauli & Gottfried, 1996), the end of the summer, were unexpected (Fig. 5). In  
suggest that this problematic could be relevant for the any case, compiling a list of potential threats for any  
plant in the future.  
species or habitat from informants can be of great use  
for conservation managers.  
TEK for conservation. Location, abundance and  
threats.  
Overall picture and proposals for sustainable  
In the previous paragraph, we discussed how management  
traditional knowledge can help to orientate scientific  
By merging threats and management suggestions of  
research and discover new topics when performing a locals with scientific literature, we present an overall  
conservation study. But is there specific information view of the site for a better management of C. nobile  
given by locals that could be directly applied in and its habitat.  
conservation plans? After performing this pilot study,  
On the one hand, change in livestock proportions  
we suggest three topics of interest that could be useful and management in Sierra deAndía has been one of the  
with this regard: population’s location, ecological most repeated issues by informants (60%). According  
indicators and threats.  
to them, sheep has been the traditional predominant  
Firstly, as happened in previous studies (Tomasini cattle type of the site. However, over the last decades, a  
Theilade, 2019) informants made possible to progressivechangehasbeenoccurringtowardsahigher  
&
quickly locate the main populations of C. nobile, proportion of bigger non-shepherded cattle (cows and  
coincident with traditional recollection sites. Secondly, mares). In concordance with locals, bibliography  
informants were able to give a range of ecological showed us that there has been an appreciable shift  
indicators (Table 1), which could be a good basis for in livestock proportions in the last decades (Garayo-  
researchers to better understand plant’s ecology and Urruela et al., 1996; Sección de Gestión Forestal, 2009,  
make optimal management decisions. In fact, plot 2011, 2017) (Fig. 7). This could have implications in  
study during vegetation survey, suggests that some pasture dynamics, like overgrazing and over-trampling  
Fig. 7. Cattle proportions shifts in Sierra de Andía. A: Traditional proportions (Given by Informants). B:  
Proportions in 1996 (Garayo Urruela et al., 1996). C: Proportions in 2019 (Sección de Gestión Forestal,  
2019). “s”: sheep; “g”: goats; “m”: mares; “c”: cows.  
105  
Bol. Soc. Argent. Bot. 56 (1) 2021  
in most-desirable areas, as well as abandonment of grazeland renewing, something also highlighted  
others. Actually, according to Molnár et al. (2020), in the literature (Aguirre-Pérez de Eulate, 2011).  
shepherding might be an essential element in order Moreover, end summer rainfall can lead to an  
to manage cattle movement and avoid pasture increase on soil fragility due to higher humidity  
abandonment over certain areas. Finally, informants (Marlow & Pogacnik, 1985). This phenomenon had  
suggested that overgrazing and over trampling already been mentioned by informants, using as an  
leads to a more prostrate phenotype of C. nobile, example soil destruction near artificial ponds, or  
so it is advisable to collect the plant “inside pond’s when cattle remains in reduced areas during rainfall  
fences, where absence of cattle let it grow bigger”. season at the end of the summer. With respect  
Following informant’s experience, we studied this to all this, we found that Navarrean government  
phenomenon measuring flowers from both in and promoted the fencing of some of these ponds due to  
out of a pond’s fence, finding a more prostrate the presence of Ichthyosaura alpestris (GAN-NIK  
phenotype and lighter inflorescence production & Gobierno de Navarra, 2018), therefore limiting  
outside the fence (Fig. 6). This suggests that not shore-land destruction. However, no measurements  
only vegetative parts of the plant, but sexual regarding cattle management during wet months  
reproduction efficiency could be affected in the of the year were found, which is an increasingly  
long term by all these impacts. Interestingly, this important topic as herds nowadays remain longer  
hypothesis has been found as well in the literature time in the pastures of Sierra de Andía.  
(Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland, 2021).  
On the other hand, informants suggested that Proposals for sustainable management  
compared to traditional grazing times, change  
Merging TEK and scientific knowledge allowed  
towards longer grazing periods is occurring in Sierra us to reach a better understanding of the site and  
de Andía. Comparing traditional grazing periods its threats. By knowing this, here we suggest some  
with current data suggests that there has been a actions that could benefit general pasture management  
change in that regard (Garayo-Urruela et al., 1996; and conservation of C. nobile in Sierra de Andía:  
Sección de Gestión Forestal, 2009, 2011, 2017)  
(Fig. 8). This could have an effect over pasture 1) Recognising and promoting sheep shepherds as  
regeneration in certain areas, as interviewees  
mentioned late summer rainfall as a key factor for  
key elements of the ecosystem: Sheep shepherds  
still maintain and give cultural and ecological  
Fig. 8. Grazing period duration. A: Dates in 2019 (Sección de Gestión Forestal, 2019). B: Traditional dates  
given by informants). “s”: sheep; “m”: mares; “g”: cows.  
(
106  
L. Gorriz and M. Pardo-de-Santayana - TEK in Sierra de Andía for conservation  
services that should be recognised, as they than once), and the advanced age of those who  
maintain a tight human-nature relationship and still maintain traditional ecological knowledge of  
keep up pasture ecosystems, avoiding their C. nobile and its habitat. Even though the sample  
abandonment and loss. Contrary to free-bigger could be partially representative of Valle de Ollo’s  
cattle, shepherded sheep allow for a more population, wider research would be needed to  
efficient and homogenous use of grazelands, cover all possible interviewees.  
eluding abandonment of non-desirable areas  
and over-exploitation of most appealing ones conservation approach might not work when locals  
Molnár et al., 2020). This measure would allow don’t have a direct relationship with the natural  
Finally, it is important to note that this  
(
to maintain traditional predomination of minor resource of study. Chamaemelum nobile is a  
cattle and prevent progressive abandonment of well-known plant among informants, about which  
bigger cattle in Sierra de Andía. Moreover, if they have developed strong ecological knowledge  
future changes like wolf recovering in the site and therefore promising contributions to any  
happen (RTVE, 2021), shepherds could again hypothetical management plan. Besides, this is an  
become essential to ensure cattle protection.  
argumenttomaintaintraditionalharvestingpractices  
2
) Limiting livestock in Sierra de Andía since as a possible pool for ecological information.  
rainfall begins (September-October): This  
measurement might allow for a better recovery Further research  
of pastures at the end of the summer, as well  
Firstly, after performing plot vegetation survey,  
as avoiding wet-soil disruption by trampling in we realized that future studies could try to better  
specific areas. If cattle removal is not feasible, contrast traditional indicators by disposing enough  
we suggest to locate them in most dry areas (soil plots for all their possible combinations (4x4=16  
humidity less than 10%), so trample destruction plots). Secondly, we suggest future research  
is reduced (Marlow & Pogacnik, 1985).  
regarding the effects of minor and bigger cattle  
3
) Fencing artificial ponds: By protecting artificial over pasture dynamics, as it would help to improve  
ponds from cattle entrance and stablishing management decisions in Sierra de Andía. Thirdly,  
buffer areas, humid shores disruption could we encourage any study regarding climate change  
be prevented. This would benefit key fauna consequences on the site, looking to improve  
species like Ichtiosauria alpestris, and other resilience of the area in the long term. Finally, we  
amphibians, as well as allowing C. nobile and believe that new solutions and ideas enhancing  
other plant species to recover, and reducing sustainable nature harvesting and traditional  
disease spreading from wild animals to livestock. knowledge transmission, would greatly help TEK  
) Promoting sustainable recollection of C. nobile: survival, a precious wisdom for nature conservation.  
We suggest that a good management of natural  
4
resources such as C. nobile, also implies  
sustainable exploitation for human use. By concluSionS  
doing this, new stakeholders can arise to better  
understand and protect the area. Moreover,  
promoting different uses of Sierra de Andía, rich and varied TEK about C. nobile and its habitat.  
alternative to pastoral and recreational), might However, high mean age of the sample indicates  
This study suggests that locals still maintain a  
(
increase benefits from the site.  
that TEK is at risk, as little generational substitution  
exists. Secondly, multiple coincidence between  
TEK and scientific wisdom suggests that they could  
Limitations of the study  
It is essential to remark that the following project be merged in order to achieve better and more  
should be only understood as a pilot study, without precise management decisions in Sierra de Andía,  
statistical significance, but as a possible orientation supporting the general idea of TEK use in nature  
for future research and decision making. The small sustainable management for industrialized countries.  
number of informants can be partly explained The study also suggests that current trends in Sierra  
due to the low population of Valle de Ollo, time de Andía towards higher proportions of bigger  
availability (each informant was visited more non-shepherded cattle, could lead into important  
107  
Bol. Soc. Argent. Bot. 56 (1) 2021  
changes on ecosystem dynamics, favouring over-  
exploitation of certain areas and abandonment of  
others. Finally, in order to increase pasture resilience  
and C. nobile conservation, traditional customs  
BARANDIARÁN, M., J. MANTEROLA & A.  
MANTEROLA, 1990. Atlas etnográfico de  
Vasconia. La alimentación doméstica en Vasconia.  
Eusko Jaurlaritza, Bilbao.  
such as sheep shepherding, limiting grazing period, BENÍTEZ, G., J. MOLERO & M. R GONZÁLEZ-  
fencing artificial ponds and promoting sustainable  
TEJERO. 2010. Floristic and ecological diversity of  
recollection of C. nobile, are suggested.  
ethnobotanical resources used in Western Granada  
(
Spain) and their conservation. Acta Bot. Gall. 157:  
69–86.  
https://doi.org/10.1080/12538078.2010.10516246  
BERASATEGUI, A., K. VAN DORT O.  
7
auThorS conTribuTionS  
&
LG and MP conceived and designed the  
study. LG Collected the data and performed the  
analysis. MP contributed with data and analysis  
tools. LG Wrote the paper with the guidance and  
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acKnowledgmenTS  
I would like to give thanks to all my  
informants, who have embraced me without BLANCO-SALAS, J., T. RUIZ-TÉLLEZ & F.  
knowing me. Thankyou as well to Silvia Akerreta,  
Ricardo Andueza and the staff from Navarrean  
government. And finally, to my dear father.  
Because without him this study wouldn’t be half  
of what it is.  
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